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diff --git a/talermerchantdemos/blog/articles/scrap1_13.html b/talermerchantdemos/blog/articles/scrap1_13.html new file mode 100644 index 0000000..8c06eb2 --- /dev/null +++ b/talermerchantdemos/blog/articles/scrap1_13.html @@ -0,0 +1,668 @@ +<!-- This is the second edition of Free Software, Free Society: Selected Essays of Richard M. Stallman. + +Free Software Foundation + +51 Franklin Street, Fifth Floor + +Boston, MA 02110-1335 +Copyright C 2002, 2010 Free Software Foundation, Inc. +Verbatim copying and distribution of this entire book are permitted +worldwide, without royalty, in any medium, provided this notice is +preserved. Permission is granted to copy and distribute translations +of this book from the original English into another language provided +the translation has been approved by the Free Software Foundation and +the copyright notice and this permission notice are preserved on all +copies. + +ISBN 978-0-9831592-0-9 +Cover design by Rob Myers. + +Cover photograph by Peter Hinely. + --> + + + <a name="Categories-of-Free-and-Nonfree-Software"> + </a> + <h1 class="chapter"> + 13. Categories of Free and Nonfree Software + </h1> + <div style="display:none"> + <p id="teaser"> + Free software is software that comes with permission for + anyone to use, copy, and/or distribute, either verbatim or with + modifications, either gratis or for a fee. In particular, this + means that source code must be available. “If it’s not + source, it’s not software.” + </p> + </div> + <a name="index-call-to-action_002c-use-correct-terminology-_0028see-also-terminology_0029-3"> + </a> + <img alt="category" src="/essay/13._Categories_of_Free_and_Nonfree_Software/data/category.jpg"> + <blockquote class="smallquotation"> + <p> + <em> + This diagram, originally by Chao-Kuei and updated by several +others since, explains the different categories of software. It’s +available at + <a href="http://gnu.org/philosophy/categories.html"> + http://gnu.org/philosophy/categories.html + </a> + as +a Scalable Vector Graphic and as an XFig document, under the terms of +any of the GNU GPL v2 or later, the GNU FDL v1.2 or later, or the +Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike v2.0 or later. To view a copy +of the Creative Commons license, visit + <a href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/2.0"> + http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/2.0 + </a> + , or +send a letter to Creative Commons, 171 Second Street, +Suite 300, San Francisco, California 94105, USA. + </em> + </p> + </blockquote> + <br> + <a name="Free-Software"> + </a> + <h3 class="subheading"> + Free Software + </h3> + <a name="index-software_002c-free-_0028see-also-free-software_0029"> + </a> + <a name="index-free-software-_0028see-also-free-software_002c-four-freedoms_002c-citizen-values_002c-selling_002c-and-software_0029-2"> + </a> + <p> + Free software is software that comes with permission for + anyone to use, copy, and/or distribute, either verbatim or with + modifications, either gratis or for a fee. In particular, this + means that source code must be available. “If it’s not + source, it’s not software.” This is a simplified + description; see also the full definition (p. @refx{Definition-pg}{). + </p> + <p> + If a program is free, then it can potentially be included + in a free operating system such as GNU, or free versions of + the GNU/Linux + system. + </p> + <p> + There are many different ways to make a program free—many + questions of detail, which could be decided in more than one way + and still make the program free. Some of the possible variations + are described below. For information on specific free software + licenses, see the license list page, at + <a href="http://gnu.org/licenses/license-list.html"> + http://gnu.org/licenses/license-list.html + </a> + . + </p> + <p> + Free software is a matter of freedom, not price. But + proprietary software companies typically use the term + “free software” to refer to price. Sometimes they + mean that you can obtain a binary copy at no charge; sometimes + they mean that a copy is bundled with a computer that you are + buying, and the price includes both. Either way, it has + nothing to do with what we mean by free software in the GNU + Project. + </p> + <p> + Because of this potential confusion, when a software company + says its product is free software, always check the actual + distribution terms to see whether users really have all the + freedoms that free software implies. Sometimes it really is free + software; sometimes it isn’t. + </p> + <p> + Many languages have two separate words for + “free” as in freedom and “free” as in + zero price. For example, French has “libre” and + “gratuit.” Not so English; there is a word + “gratis” that refers unambiguously to price, but + no common adjective that refers unambiguously to freedom. So + if you are speaking another language, we suggest you translate + “free” into your language to make it clearer. See + our list of + translations of the term “free software” into + various other languages (p. @refx{FS Translations-pg}{). + </p> + <p> + Free software is often more reliable than nonfree software. + <a name="index-software_002c-free-_0028see-also-free-software_0029-1"> + </a> + <a name="index-free-software-_0028see-also-free-software_002c-four-freedoms_002c-citizen-values_002c-selling_002c-and-software_0029-3"> + </a> + </p> + <a name="Open-Source-Software"> + </a> + <h3 class="subheading"> + Open Source Software + </h3> + <a name="index-software_002c-open-source-_0028see-also-open-source-software_0029"> + </a> + <a name="index-open-source-software-_0028see-also-software_0029"> + </a> + <p> + The term “open source” software is used by some + people to mean more or less the same category as free + software. It is not exactly the same class of software: they + accept some licenses that we consider too restrictive, and + there are free software licenses they have not + accepted. However, the differences in extension of the + category are small: nearly all free software is open source, + and nearly all open source software is free. + <a name="index-free-software_002c-essential-difference-between-open-source-and-1"> + </a> + <a name="index-open-source_002c-essential-difference-between-free-software-and-1"> + </a> + </p> + <p> + We prefer the term “free + software” because it refers to + freedom—something that the term “open + source” does not do. + </p> + <a name="Public-Domain-Software"> + </a> + <h3 class="subheading"> + Public Domain Software + </h3> + <a name="index-software_002c-public-domain-_0028see-also-public-domain-software_0029"> + </a> + <a name="index-public-domain-software-_0028see-also-software_0029-2"> + </a> + <a name="index-copyright_002c-public-domain-software-and-_0028see-also-public-domain-software_0029"> + </a> + <p> + Public domain software is software that is not copyrighted. If + the source code is in the public domain, that is a special case of + noncopylefted free + software, which means that some copies or modified versions + may not be free at all. + </p> + <p> + In some cases, an executable program can be in the public +domain but the source code is not available. This is not free +software, because free software requires accessibility of source code. +Meanwhile, most free software is not in the + +public domain; it is +copyrighted, and the copyright holders have legally given permission +for everyone to use it in freedom, using a free software license. + </p> + <p> + Sometimes people use the term “public domain” + in a loose fashion to + mean “free” or + “available gratis.” However, “public + domain” is a legal term and means, precisely, “not + copyrighted.” For clarity, we recommend using + “public domain” for that meaning only, and using + other terms to convey the other meanings. + </p> + <p> + Under the + <a name="index-copyright_002c-Berne-Convention"> + </a> + <a name="index-Berne-Convention-_0028see-also-copyright_0029"> + </a> + Berne Convention, which most countries have + signed, anything written down is automatically + copyrighted. This includes programs. Therefore, if you want a + program you have written to be in the public domain, you must + take some legal steps to disclaim the copyright on it; + otherwise, the program is copyrighted. + <a name="index-software_002c-public-domain-_0028see-also-public-domain-software_0029-1"> + </a> + <a name="index-public-domain-software-_0028see-also-software_0029-3"> + </a> + <a name="index-copyright_002c-public-domain-software-and-_0028see-also-public-domain-software_0029-1"> + </a> + </p> + <a name="Copylefted-Software"> + </a> + <h3 class="subheading"> + Copylefted Software + </h3> + <a name="index-software_002c-copylefted-_0028see-also-copylefted-software_0029"> + </a> + <a name="index-copylefted-software-_0028see-also-software_0029"> + </a> + <p> + Copylefted software is free software whose distribution terms ensure +that all copies of all versions carry more or less the same +distribution terms. This means, for instance, that copyleft licenses +generally disallow others to add additional requirements to the +software (though a limited set of safe added requirements can be +allowed) and require making source code available. This shields the +program, and its modified versions, from some of the common ways of +making a program proprietary. + </p> + <p> + Some copyleft licenses, such as GPL version 3, block other +means of turning software proprietary, such as tivoization. + </p> + <p> + In the GNU Project, we copyleft almost all the software we +write, because our goal is to give + <em> + every + </em> + user the freedoms +implied by the term “free software.” See the essay “Copyleft” +(p. @refx{Copyleft-pg}{) for more explanation of how copyleft works and +why we use it. + </p> + <a name="index-copyleft_002c-and-GPL"> + </a> + <p> + Copyleft is a general concept; to copyleft an actual program, +you need to use a specific set of distribution terms. There are many +possible ways to write copyleft distribution terms, so in principle +there can be many copyleft free software licenses. However, in actual +practice nearly all copylefted software uses the GNU General Public +License. Two different copyleft licenses are usually “incompatible,” +which means it is illegal to merge the code using one license with the +code using the other license; therefore, it is good for the community +if people use a single copyleft license. + </p> + <a name="Noncopylefted-Free-Software"> + </a> + <h3 class="subheading"> + Noncopylefted Free Software + </h3> + <a name="index-software_002c-noncopylefted-free-_0028see-also-noncopylefted-free-software_0029"> + </a> + <a name="index-noncopylefted-free-software-_0028see-also-software_0029-1"> + </a> + <p> + Noncopylefted free software comes from the author with + permission to redistribute and modify, and also to add additional + restrictions to it. + </p> + <p> + If a program is free but not copylefted, then some copies + or modified versions may not be free at all. A software + company can compile the program, with or without + modifications, and distribute the executable file as + a proprietary software product. + </p> + <a name="index-X-Window-System-3"> + </a> + <a name="index-X-Consortium-_0028see-also-Open-Group_002c-its-successor_0029"> + </a> + <a name="index-X11-licenses"> + </a> + <p> + The X Window System illustrates this. The X Consortium +releases X11 with distribution terms that make it noncopylefted free +software. If you wish, you can get a copy which has those distribution +terms and is free. However, there are nonfree versions as well, and +there are (or at least were) popular workstations and PC graphics +boards for which nonfree versions are the only ones that work. If you +are using this hardware, X11 is not free software for you. The +developers of X11 even made X11 nonfree for a while; they were able to +do this because others had contributed their code under the same +noncopyleft license. + </p> + <a name="index-X-Window-System-4"> + </a> + <a name="index-X-Consortium-_0028see-also-Open-Group_002c-its-successor_0029-1"> + </a> + <a name="index-X11-licenses-1"> + </a> + <a name="index-software_002c-noncopylefted-free-_0028see-also-noncopylefted-free-software_0029-1"> + </a> + <a name="index-noncopylefted-free-software-_0028see-also-software_0029-2"> + </a> + <a name="Lax-Permissive-Licensed-Software"> + </a> + <h3 class="subheading"> + Lax Permissive Licensed Software + </h3> + <a name="index-lax-permissive-licensed-software"> + </a> + <a name="index-software_002c-lax-permissive-licensed"> + </a> + <p> + Lax permissive licenses include the + <a name="index-X11-licenses-2"> + </a> + X11 license and the two + <a name="index-BSD-licenses-_0028see-also-both-_0060_0060BSD_002dstyle_0027_0027-and-GPL_0029"> + </a> + BSD +licenses. These licenses permit almost any use of the code, including +distributing proprietary binaries with or without changing the source +code. + </p> + <a name="GPL_002dCovered-Software"> + </a> + <h3 class="subheading"> + GPL-Covered Software + </h3> + <a name="index-software_002c-GPL_002dcovered-_0028see-also-GPL_002dcovered-software_0029"> + </a> + <a name="index-GPL_002c-GPL_002dcovered-software-_0028see-also-software_0029"> + </a> + <a name="index-GPL_002dcovered-software-_0028see-also-software_0029"> + </a> + <p> + The GNU GPL (General Public + License) is one specific set of distribution terms for + copylefting a program. The GNU Project uses it as the distribution + terms for most GNU software. + </p> + <p> + To equate free software with GPL-covered software is therefore + an error. + </p> + <a name="The-GNU-Operating-System"> + </a> + <h3 class="subheading"> + The GNU Operating System + </h3> + <a name="index-software_002c-GNU-operating-system-_0028see-also-GNU_0029"> + </a> + <a name="index-GNU_002c-GNU-operating-system-_0028see-also-both-software-and-GNU_0029"> + </a> + <p> + The GNU operating system is the + Unix-like operating system, which is entirely free software, that + we in the GNU Project have developed since 1984. + </p> + <a name="index-TeX-2"> + </a> + <p> + A Unix-like operating system consists of many programs. The GNU + system includes all the GNU software, as well as many other + packages, such as the X Window System and TeX, which are not GNU + software. + </p> + <a name="index-Hurd_002c-GNU-1"> + </a> + <a name="index-GNU_002c-GNU-Hurd-2"> + </a> + <a name="index-kernel_002c-GNU-Hurd-1"> + </a> + <p> + The first test release of the complete GNU system was in + 1996. This includes the GNU Hurd, our kernel, developed since + 1990. In 2001 the GNU system (including the GNU Hurd) began + working fairly reliably, but the Hurd still lacks some + important features, so it is not widely used. Meanwhile, + the GNU/Linux system, + an offshoot of the GNU operating system which uses Linux as + the kernel instead of the GNU Hurd, has been a great success + since the 90s. + </p> + <p> + Since the purpose of GNU is to be free, every single + component in the GNU operating system has to be free + software. They don’t all have to be copylefted, however; any + kind of free software is legally suitable to include if it + helps meet technical goals. And it isn’t necessary for all the + components to be GNU software, individually. GNU can and does + include noncopylefted free software such as the X Window + System that were developed by other projects. + </p> + <a name="GNU-Programs"> + </a> + <h3 class="subheading"> + GNU Programs + </h3> + <a name="index-software_002c-GNU-programs-_0028see-also-GNU-programs_0029"> + </a> + <a name="index-GNU_002c-GNU-programs-_0028see-also-software_0029-1"> + </a> + <p> + “GNU programs” is equivalent + to GNU software. A program Foo is a + GNU program if it is GNU software. We also sometimes say it + is a “GNU package.” + </p> + <a name="GNU-Software"> + </a> + <h3 class="subheading"> + GNU Software + </h3> + <a name="index-software_002c-GNU_0028see-also-GNU-software_0029"> + </a> + <a name="index-GNU-_0028see-also-both-software-and-GNU_0029-3"> + </a> + <p> + GNU software is + software that is released under the auspices of the GNU Project. If a program is GNU + software, we also say that it is a GNU program or a GNU + package. The README or manual of a GNU package should say it + is one; also, + + the Free Software Directory identifies all GNU packages. + </p> + <p> + Most GNU software is copylefted, but not all; however, + all GNU software must be free software. + </p> + <a name="index-FSF_002c-software-development"> + </a> + <a name="index-FSF_002c-copyright-on-software"> + </a> + <p> + Some GNU software was written by staff of the Free Software +Foundation, but most GNU software comes from many volunteers. (Some of +these volunteers are paid by companies or universities, but they are +volunteers for us.) Some contributed software is copyrighted by the +Free Software Foundation; some is copyrighted by the contributors who +wrote it. + <a name="index-software_002c-GNU_0028see-also-GNU-software_0029-1"> + </a> + <a name="index-GNU-_0028see-also-both-software-and-GNU_0029-4"> + </a> + </p> + <a name="Nonfree-Software"> + </a> + <h3 class="subheading"> + Nonfree Software + </h3> + <a name="index-software_002c-nonfree-_0028see-also-nonfree-software_0029"> + </a> + <a name="index-nonfree-software-_0028see-also-software_0029"> + </a> + <p> + Nonfree software is any software that is not free. + Its use, redistribution or modification is prohibited, or + requires you to ask for permission, or is restricted so much + that you effectively can’t do it freely. + </p> + <a name="Proprietary-Software"> + </a> + <h3 class="subheading"> + Proprietary Software + </h3> + <a name="index-software_002c-proprietary-_0028see-also-proprietary-software_0029"> + </a> + <a name="index-proprietary-software-_0028see-also-software_0029"> + </a> + <p> + Proprietary software is another name for nonfree software. + In the past we subdivided nonfree software into + “semifree software,” which could be modified and + redistributed noncommercially, and “proprietary + software,” which could not be. But we have dropped that + distinction and now use “proprietary software” as + synonymous with nonfree software. + </p> + <a name="index-FSF_002c-on-installing-proprietary-software"> + </a> + <p> + The Free Software Foundation follows the rule that we cannot + install any proprietary program on our computers except temporarily + for the specific purpose of writing a free replacement for that + very program. Aside from that, we feel there is no possible excuse + for installing a proprietary program. + </p> + <p> + For example, we felt justified in installing Unix on our + computer in the 1980s, because we were using it to write a free + replacement for Unix. Nowadays, since free operating systems are + available, the excuse is no longer applicable; we do not use any + nonfree operating systems, and any new computer we install + must run a completely free operating system. + </p> + <p> + We don’t insist that users of GNU, or contributors to GNU, have + to live by this rule. It is a rule we made for ourselves. But we + hope you will follow it too, for your freedom’s sake. + </p> + <a name="Freeware"> + </a> + <h3 class="subheading"> + Freeware + </h3> + <a name="index-software_002c-freeware-_0028see-also-freeware_0029"> + </a> + <a name="index-_0060_0060freeware_002c_0027_0027-erroneous-use-of-term"> + </a> + <p> + The term “freeware” has no clear accepted + definition, but it is commonly used for packages which permit + redistribution but not modification (and their source code is + not available). These packages are + <em> + not + </em> + free software, + so please don’t use “freeware” to refer to free + software. + </p> + <a name="Shareware"> + </a> + <h3 class="subheading"> + Shareware + </h3> + <a name="index-software_002c-shareware"> + </a> + <a name="index-shareware-_0028see-also-software_0029"> + </a> + <p> + Shareware is software which comes with permission for people to + redistribute copies, but says that anyone who continues to use a + copy is + <em> + required + </em> + to pay a license fee. + </p> + <p> + Shareware is not free software, or even semifree. There are two + reasons it is not: + </p> + <ul> + <li> + For most shareware, source code is not available; thus, you cannot modify the program at all. + </li> + <li> + Shareware does not come with permission to make a copy and install it without paying a license fee, not even for individuals engaging in nonprofit activity. (In practice, people often disregard the distribution terms and do this anyway, but the terms don’t permit it.) + </li> + </ul> + <a name="index-software_002c-shareware-1"> + </a> + <a name="index-shareware-_0028see-also-software_0029-1"> + </a> + <a name="Private-Software"> + </a> + <h3 class="subheading"> + Private Software + </h3> + <a name="index-software_002c-private"> + </a> + <a name="index-private-software-_0028see-also-software_0029"> + </a> + <a name="index-development_002c-private-software"> + </a> + <p> + Private or custom software is software developed for one user + (typically an organization or company). That user keeps it and uses + it, and does not release it to the public either as source code or + as binaries. + </p> + <p> + A private program is free software in a trivial sense if its + sole user has full rights to it. + </p> + <p> + In general we do not believe it is wrong to develop a program + and not release it. There are occasions when a program is so useful + that withholding it from release is treating humanity badly. + However, most programs are not that important, so not releasing them + is not particularly harmful. Thus, there is no conflict between the + development of private or custom software and the principles of the + free software movement. + </p> + <p> + Nearly all employment for programmers is in development of + custom software; therefore most programming jobs are, or could be, + done in a way compatible with the free software movement. + </p> + <a name="Commercial-Software"> + </a> + <h3 class="subheading"> + Commercial Software + </h3> + <a name="index-software_002c-commercial-_0028see-also-commercial-software_0029"> + </a> + <a name="index-commercial-software-_0028see-also-software_0029"> + </a> + <a name="index-commercial-software_002c-to-be-distinguished-from-proprietary-software"> + </a> + <a name="index-proprietary-software_002c-to-be-distinguished-from-commercial-software"> + </a> + <a name="index-development_002c-commercial-software"> + </a> + <p> + Commercial software is software being developed by a + business which aims to make money from the use of the + software. “Commercial” and + “proprietary” are not the same thing! Most + commercial software + is proprietary, but there + is commercial free software, and there is noncommercial + nonfree software. + </p> + <a name="index-GNU_002c-GNU-Ada-compiler-1"> + </a> + <a name="index-Ada-compiler_002c-GNU-1"> + </a> + <p> + For example, GNU Ada is developed by a company. It is always + distributed under the terms of the GNU GPL, and every copy is + free software; but its developers sell support contracts. When + their salesmen speak to prospective customers, sometimes the + customers say, “We would feel safer with a commercial + compiler.” The salesmen reply, “GNU + Ada + <em> + is + </em> + a commercial compiler; it happens to be free + software.” + </p> + <p> + For the GNU Project, the emphasis is in the other order: + the important thing is that GNU Ada is free software; whether + it is commercial is just a detail. However, the additional + development of GNU Ada that results from its being commercial + is definitely beneficial. + </p> + <p> + Please help spread the awareness that free commercial + software is possible. You can do this by making an effort not + to say “commercial” when you mean + “proprietary.” + <a name="index-call-to-action_002c-use-correct-terminology-_0028see-also-terminology_0029-4"> + </a> + </p> + <hr size="2"/> + </br> + </img> + |